Spelling - Organisation Pt. 3

Tim is has selected the word, 'appeared' for word building.

This series looks at spelling issues as they relate to human information processing and working memory. How we learn to spell is dependent on how the brain processes information by encoding, storing and  retrieving stored information. The first post looked at the encoding of spelling information while the second post dealt with the retrieval of that information from long-term memory. This is the third posting in this series and discusses the notion of storage and organisation of that information. 

To begin this discussion it must be understood that spellers are active constructors and processors of information. In the past many teachers and others have assumed that learners merely identify and store spellings in there heads by systematically spelling or sounding out each word over and over again until the word is encoded or printed on a sort of mental chalk board. However, we now know that various elements of the encoded words are stored in different locations of the brain. For example, some graphic letter patterns may be stored in one area while the sounds and meanings may be stored in other areas. Dual Coding theory is particularly relevant in our overall understanding of this process. According to this theory the orthographic elements of words are stored in the visual memory while the sound elements are stored in the phonological store of working memory. What this essentially means is that good spellers have good organisation strategies and efficient linking mechanisms to enable them to reconstruct the target word.

Created from Visuwords

There are lots of ways to help children organise and develop these linking processes. We will discuss two methods that can be used together to link the semantic, orthographic and phonological aspects of words. Visuwords is an excellent application on the Internet to enable people to explore the meaning and relationships of a targeted word. How words are related to each other is shown with the use of colour coding and line style. For example, the red coloured link shows the antonyms for the word 'appear' while the coloured spots indicate the grammatical relationships. In conjunction with this activity a table or feature analysis chart could be made up to explore word building by using 'appear' as the root word and showing how other morphemes such as 're', 'dis', 'ed', 'ing' or 'ance' can be added to change the meaning.

Many children with spelling difficulties are often passive learners who exhibit a limited set of spelling skills. They typically lack confidence and it is important for teachers to help them set appropriate and specific goals that are not only challenging but achievable. This, lack of confidence and disengagement can be partially overcome by giving them a choice of words to learn. In this way they will develop more effective and longer-lasting word learning than they will for words chosen by the teacher. Spelling also improves when children are expected to generate word meanings by giving them the opportunity to experiment independently using the techniques mentioned above.   

This is the final part in the three part series on spelling from a working memory perspective. I would suggest that you visit Trevor Cairney's Blog, Literacy, families and learning, for an excellent overview of the teaching of spelling called "Spelling, caught and taught."

 

Memory and Reading

Long-Term Memory

Before I begin the next series on 'Visualising and Comprehending'  we will need to consider the function of long-term memory.

In the last series on working memory I discussed issues related to reading performance. Obviously success in reading depends on using working memory efficiently. It also depends very much on long -term memory. Long-term memory is where information is stored permanently. However, we do not store everything that enters consciousness. We have an efficient screening function in working memory that sifts and moves relevant information into long-term memory storage. 

I have reviewed two articles from Scientific America to explore the functioning this very important permanent store (some highlights have been captured below - go to the link to see the full articles).

Why Is Memory So Good and So Bad?

Explaining the memory paradox By Julian De Freitas  | May 29, 2012  Scientific America

Do you remember what you ate for dinner last Friday evening? Chances are, this will be quite difficult, but not impossible. "But for at least a short while after your meal, you knew exactly what you ate, and could easily remember what was on your plate in great detail. What happened to your memory between then and now? Did it slowly fade away? Or did it vanish, all at once?"

"For many reasons, then, it would be very useful to understand how visual memory facilitates these mental operations, as well as constrains our ability to perform them. Yet although these big questions have long been debated, we are only now beginning to answer them."

"Memories like what you had for dinner are stored in visual short-term memory—particularly, in a kind of short-term memory often called “visual working memory.” Visual working memory is where visual images are temporarily stored while your mind works away at other tasks—like a whiteboard on which things are briefly written and then wiped away. We rely on visual working memory when remembering things over brief intervals, such as when copying lecture notes to a notebook. Without visual memory, we wouldn’t be able to store—and later retrieve—anything we see."

"Researchers at MIT and Harvard found that, if a memory can survive long enough to make it into what is called “visual long-term memory,” then it doesn’t have to be wiped out at all. 

In a recent review, researchers at Harvard and MIT argue that the critical factor is how meaningful the remembered images are—whether the content of the images you see connects to pre-existing knowledge about them. "

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=why-memory-so-good-bad&utm_source=WhatCountsEmail&utm_medium=Above%20the%20Fold&utm_campaign=Above%20the%20Fold

If we remember more, can we read deeper–and create better? Part I. By Maria Konnikova | June 1, 2012  Scientific America

This article considers the role of meaning, long-term memory and context.

If you visualize elements as vividly as possible in a familiar space that you picture in your mind you should be able to recall them by walking through that space and looking at the images of objects that you have placed there. The objects are  physical embodiments of ideas we were to memorise. This is the loci mnemonic memory technique that encapsulates the powerful effect that visualising has on the encoding and retrieval of information (follow the link to read more about this important took and the relationship to reading).

http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/literally-psyched/2012/06/01/if-we-remember-more-can-we-read-deeper-and-create-better-part-i/?utm_source=WhatCountsEmail&utm_medium=Above%20the%20Fold&utm_campaign=Above%20the%20Fold

Downtime and Memory

People learn significantly better after a walk in nature than after a walk in a dense urban environment, suggesting that processing a barrage of information leaves people fatigued. 

The brain takes advantage of the times that we shovel things into it and when we’re paying attention to the outside world. It also takes advantage of downtime. This could  be an important consideration in education, by allowing learners to have downtime to allow them to consolidate their learning in a reflective head space.

Modern technology tends to make windows of time entertaining, and potentially productive but is it entirely helpful? Researchers, however, highlight an unanticipated side effect: when people keep their brains busy with digital input, they are neglecting downtime that should enable them to better learn and remember information, or come up with new ideas. Researchers have also found that when rats have a new experience, such as exploring an unfamiliar area, their brains show new patterns of activity. However, when these rats take a break from their exploration  they  seem to process those patterns in a way that creates a persistent memory of the experience.  It would be surprising if a lack of downtime didn't affect learning in people in a similar way.



To find out more go to an interesting article on downtime.

Making executive (memory) functioning more efficient

To achieve success with any academic task  requires learners to plan, allocate their time, organise their mental resources, prioritise information, flexibly apply thinking strategies, monitor their progress, and reflect upon meaning. This is part of the executive functioning of working memory and for children to use their thinking processes more efficiently they may need to be shown how to develop these skills. 

However, many children with learning difficulties struggle with some or all of the following working memory functions:

Before the learning activity (Conceptualise)

• Attending:  focusing attention on the task and excluding extraneous information.
• Planning: ordering information (what is known) and prioritising time. This may take the form of writing notes, drawing diagrams, visualising.
• Goal setting: prioritising and setting goals for the activity. 

During the learning activity (Organise)

• Organising: sifting the main ideas from the details,  by shifting and categorising.
• Encoding: arranging information and linking with background knowledge from long-term memory, encoding and storing information into long-term memory.
• Monitoring: checking whether the encoding process is making sense and whether the reading or writing strategies are adequate or whether an alternative strategy will work better.

After the learning activity (Reflect)

• Reviewing: Recollecting the events of a story or the ideas presented in an article.
• Reorganising: Reframing the recollections in a way that is more meaningful and connected to one's life experience.
• Reflecting: Thinking about what has been learned and forming an opinion, making judgements, and predicting outcomes.

In this blog I will focus on attending.

The central executive determines what to focus on when performing a particular task. If we were not able to focus our attention then we would very quickly overload working memory with too much information.

What can I do to help children focus their attention?

1. Make the question or task simple and not too long.
2. If the stated task has a number of steps then break it up into a small number of short sentences.
3. Draw a diagram, picture, or sequence of symbols to accompany the directions.
4. Ask the child to repeat the directions.
5. Ask the child to take notes and repeat the directions.
6. Give prompts.
7. Say, "What do you have to do first? What do you need to do next? and What is the last thing that you have to do?"
8. Make sure that the content of the directions are familiar and meaningful to the child.
9. Make sure that the directions are naturally sequential and logical.
10. Reduce distracting or extraneous material that is unnecessary.

N.B. Above all, be patient and have realistic but have high expectations. Children often try and meet your expectations particularly if they are challenged.

For more information on the COR Reading Framework see 'Catalyst' (pages 24-27) at 

http://www.aisq.qld.edu.au/files/files/Communications/Catalyst/Catalyst%20-%20Winter%202011.pdf

Promoting Executive Functioning for Students - Book Review Pt 3

This book helps teachers implement executive function processes and strategies—such as planning, organizing, prioritizing, and self-checking—into the classroom curriculum. Chapters provide practical strategies to enable students to learn more effectively by improving how they think and learn. 


This is a practical and highly informative book directed at classroom teaching and features many useful whole-class ideas and suggestions. The book also shows how to differentiate instruction for students with learning or attention difficulties. 


This is an edited book that incorporates ideas from high quality researchers and practitioners. It is firmly grounded in best teaching practice. 


However, for this up-commig series on working memory I have chosen to draw from the first two chapters because I will be appealing to a wider audience. The other chapters will be useful for other applications, from which I intend to draw ideas that can be applied elsewhere.


I would highly recommend this book for classroom teachers.